Examining The Implications Of Process

Modern finis- do carry system (DAMS) engineering science is often excessively needed for complex dreary, with late interrogation calling for more integrative DAMS progressiones. However, scholars scat to take dis structured overturees and disagree on whether rational or political close-making abutes result in more powerful termination outcomes. In this study, the authors examine these issues by eldest exploring rough of the competing theoretical arguments for the process- filling- potentiality relationship, and then test these relationships empirically using information from a crisis answer reading exercise using an brainy agent-based DAMS.In contrast to previous search, findings indicate that rational decision processes are not numberive in risks contexts, and that political decision processes may negatively influence both receipt picking and decision potency. These results offer empirical evidence to confirm prior un alimentationed arguments that reaction cream is an important mediating factor mingled with the decision-making process and its forte. The authors conclude with a discussion of the implications of these findings and the application of agent-based pretence DAMS technologies for academic research and practice.Keywords Agent Software, Agent Technology, finale Support Systems (ADS), Distri merelyed Decision Making Systems, Knowledge Management, surety Management, Strategic homework Introduction Strategic decision-making (SAD) involves the methods and practices organizations use to interpret opportunities and threats in the environment and then make response decisions (Shirtwaists & Grant, 1985). Modern decommissioning support system (DAMS) technology is DOI 1 0. 4018/just. 0100701 01 often similarly needed for complex SAD, with recent research calling for more integrative DAMS approaches (Moral, Foregone, Cervantes, Carried, Guppy, & Agleam, 2005 Phillips-Wren, Moral, Foregoing, & Guppy, 2009). Such DAMS technologies o ffer the type of gamy and powerful research technology littorals with a high degree of external and internal validity as swellhead as reliability required for integrated decision support (Moral et al. , 2005 Ill, Duffy, Whit- secure 0 2010, GIG Global. copy or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of GIG Global is prohibited. International ledger Of Decision Support System Technology, 2(3), 1-15, July-September 2010 field, Bayle, & McKenna, 2009 Linebacker, De Spain, McDonald, Spencer, & Clottier, 2009 Mustachios & Susann, 2009 Phillips-Wren et 2009). Conditions of uncertainty in highly profuse environments (e. G. , crisis espouse), by nature, further complicate the SAD process, and may limit decision making effectiveness (Ramirez-Marquee & Afar, 2009). At issue is the presumed need for speed of response where logic dictates that a satisfactory decision that is made quickly is superior to an optimal decision made too late.Two of the most commonly accepted, and widely employed decision making processes in these contexts are political behavior and procedural rationality (Frederickson & Mitchell, 1984 Hart, 1 992 Eisenhower & Kickback, 1992 dean & Sherman, 1993 Hart & Binary, 1994 Reader, 2000 Hough & White, 2003 Elba & Child, 2007). ROR research upholds that political processes will be more effective in these contexts, and that rational decision processes will be less effective in unsettled environments (Frederickson & Mitchell, 1984).Subsequent research carryed the effectiveness Of processes in high velocity environments and advocated that rational decision-making processes will allow for faster response and will be more effective than political decision-making processes in these contexts (Bourgeois & Eisenhower, 1 988 Eisenhower, 1989). Hart (1992) later expanded on these arguments to develop a framework for session-making processes involving a shape of forms stemming from political or rational bases, and also argued t hat rational approaches should relate positively to effectiveness, while more political approaches should not.Collectively, the books on the effectiveness of these SAD processes across a variety of settings is in conflict as some studies suggest that rational decision-making processes will be positively cogitate to effectiveness (Bourgeois & Eisenhower, 1988 Eisenhower, 1989 Hart, 1992) and political decision-making processes will not be effective (Hart, 1 992), while Others advocate for political decision- aging processes and against rational decision-making processes (Frederickson & Mitchell, 1984).Given this conflict, and the fact that these differences are largely unresolved empirically, one contribution of this study is that we examine the effectiveness implications of political and rational SAD processes. Through doing so, we offer some clarification and resolution of the contrary predictions and findings of Frederickson and Mitchell (1984), Bourgeois and Eisenhower (1988), and Hart (1992). Further, while the inclusion off mediating aim for response choice is well theorized, it is also largely untested empirically in prior work.Therefore a further contribution of this study is that we also seek to take into account this mediating role of choice on decision effectiveness. In this study we address several specific research questions 1) Does wavering in the decision-making process result in variate in response choice 2) Does variation in response choice result in variation in decision effectiveness and 3) Can we also trace the effectiveness of different SAD processes as mediated through particular response choices?Since trouble can influence the SAD processes, question cardinal is likely to be of more interest than question woo. However, if we only look at the direct relationship between SAD processes and effectiveness (I. E. , dean & Sherman, 1996), we capability be attributing differences in effectiveness to process variation when these variatio ns did not actually influence choices. Thus, we need to adequately discern which SAD processes are more effective in these situations and produce the most effective outcomes.Addressing these questions helps to clarify the integrated influences of process and choice on strategic decision-making effectiveness. This paper proceeds as follows 1) We review related research on SAD, and leverage prior theory to develop hypotheses for an integrated process-choice-effectiveness SAD pretense 2) We examine the archetype and hypotheses through empirical compend of data from a crisis response training exercise using an agent-based simulation decision support system technology 3) We present and discuss the results Of our analyses in relation to the clay sculpture and hypotheses Copyright 0 201 0, GIG Global.Copying or distributing in print or electronic September 2010 3 and 4) We conclude with a discussion of our findings along with implications for practitioners and next academic research. Theory victimisation Prior work by Dean and Sherman (1993, 1 996) offers an integrated decision-making pattern, for framing this study of SAD process-cooperativenesss. Their work examines the assumptions underlying the relationship between decision- making processes, response choices, and SAD effectiveness.The illustration proposes that variation in decision-making process (political or rational) will produce different response choices, which result in variation in SAD effectiveness. However, empirical testing of their model is limited to the relationship between political and rational decision-making processes and variation in effectiveness alone, excluding the average response choice arable.As the potential mediating implications of the response choice median(a) variable are thereby unexamined, we extend and examine Dean and Chairmans (1996) model to clarify the conflicting arguments in the prior SAD literature. We do this through examining the full model with the inclusion o f the mediating relationship of response choice through our application to an extreme decision-making context (crisis response).Our approach is as follows 1) We extend Dean and Chairmans (1996) strategic decision-making relationship and effectiveness model of variation in process, response choice, and effectiveness by expanding heir effectiveness model to accept the potential mediating effects of intermediate choices and 2) We then examine the competing arguments for process effectiveness in this context from Frederickson and Mitchell (1984), Bourgeois and Eisenhower (1 988), and Hart (1992). In Dean and Chairmans (1996) model variation in the strategic decision-making process (e. . , Political or Rational approaches) produce variation in response choice, resulting in variation in effectiveness. The effectiveness outcomes therefore wait on the following 1) The strategic decision-making process utilized, and 2) The response strategy choices implemented. In order to clarify the conf licting dominant arguments in the literature for process effectiveness under uncertainty, as well as test the theorized mediating role of choice, we develop several base-line hypotheses to be roughly consistent with the previous literature.Replicating Dean and Chairmans (1996) model supposal 1 chromosomal mutation In strategic decommissioning process will be related to variation in effectiveness. Examining the sub elements of the implied Dean and Sherman (1996) model Hypothesis 2 Variation in strategic decommissioning process will be related to variation in response choice. Hypothesis 3 Variation in response choice will be related to variation in effectiveness.To examine the full model as proposed by Dean and Sherman (1996), which proposes a mediating relationship but only examines the direct relationship, we distinguish between the direct effect of SAD process on effectiveness (HI) and a mediating relationship acting through response choice. Whereas, Dean and Chairmans (1996) o riginal model has choice as endogenous to the strategic decision-making and effectiveness relationship, we model response choice as an intermediate step and consider this as an expansion of the strategy decision-making and effectiveness relationship.We therefore derive hypothesis 4 to examine whether response choice has both a mediating and direct effect Examining the full Dean and Sherman (1996) model Hypothesis 4 Variation in strategic decommissioning process and variation in response choice will be related to variation in effectiveness. Copyright C 2010, GIG Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic 4 International Journal of Decision Support System Technology, 2(3), 1-15, To examine the conflict in the literature regarding the inconsistency among the Frederickson and Mitchell (1984) andBourgeois and Eisenhower (1988) propositions for uncertain and high velocity environments, as well as the Hart (1992) propositions for effectiveness by type of decision-making process , we develop hypotheses AAA and b Hypothesis AAA In highly degraded environments, Rational decision-making processes should be positively related to effectiveness, while Political decommissioning processes should not have a positive relationship with effectiveness (Bourgeois & Eisenhower, 1 988 Hart, 1992).Hypothesis b In highly turbulent environments, Rational decision-making processes should be negatively related to effectiveness, while Political consummating processes should have a positive relationship with effectiveness (Frederickson & Mitchell, 1984). Analytical considerations Study context Crisis events (I. E. , inseparable disasters, terrorism, etc. ) are environments characterized by varying levels of uplift and ambiguity (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks, 2004).While government organizations differ from those in the private sector, research in the management field on SAD may be applicable to government organizations dealing with crisis events. For example, the c ore task of organizations is the creation and/or maintenance of a jeer between the organizations internal strengths and capabilities and the demands placed on them by their environments.Government organizations must also draw upon unique resources and capabilities across various departments and levels of government to reply to challenges in their environments. Similarly, the levels of turbulence and ambiguity present in a government agency operating environment may also be direct contributors to the difficulties innate to SAD in these contexts. The nature of the environmental pressure, turbidity, and outcome implications make this a unique and challenging operating environment.Prior related work on this root word from other fields includes the development of mother country defense strategy for the White House (KUDUS, 2004), the modeling of disease outbreaks (Ravager & Longing, 1985 Kurd & Hare, 2001 Kaplan, craft, & win, 2002, 2003 Bank, Gull, Kumar, Marathon, Cravings, Tutoria l, & Wang, 2004 Craft, Win, & Wilkins, 2005). Further uses have included numerous academic, government, and practitioner publications on epidemiological, terrorism response, and homeland security and defense strategies (Deutsche, 1 963 Hoffman, 1981 Hugh & Selves, 2002 Ramirez-Marquee & Afar, 2009).Sample data We test our model and hypotheses using data collected from a multi-step approach consisting of an audition (a U. S. Department of Homeland Security training exercise called Measured Response (MR.)) in conjunction with an searching agent-based simulation. We use this data to examine the extended Dean and Sherman (1996) model and the associated hypotheses for variation in SAD process, choice, and effectiveness. We use a computational experimentation methodological approach to do this.This approach consists of two steps 1) employ a validated refresh instrument to collect data on strategy process and choice from a lab experiment with actual practitioners sort out into several response teams and 2) An intelligent agent-based simulation utilized in the exercise to produce data on the effectiveness of the groups SAD processes and response choices. We test our model and its hypotheses through empirical analysis of a sub sample of 268 combined observations from the survey and simulation data collected from the exercise. Better 2010 5 Measured Response Exercise. The MR. Homeland Security training exercise consisted of nine teams of gay agents comprised of three to five individuals each (representing their actual functional responsibilities in most asses) to play the roles of the Departments of Homeland Security (DISH), Health and homo Services (DISH), and Transportation (EDT) at the local, state, and federal levels.These human agents operated In a Joint Operations Center environment where they were able to execute a variety of decisions and respond interactively to changes in the faux environment the rough the exercise. Simulation Model. The Measured Respo nse training exercise utilizes a synthetic environment as the decision support system technology for the exercise. This system uses a dynamic virtual computer simulation environment to simulate the outbreak ND dispersion of a biological agent on a mid-sized city in the United States.This outbreak affects tens of thousands of computer-based intelligent agents. These agents approximate the diversity of behavioral characteristics and demographics of the actual modeled race for the city. Additionally, we utilized pathogen-specific data from the Centers for sickness Control (CDC) in the simulation model to ensure the attack takes place in a realistic manner on the virtual population of intelligent agents. Further, the organizational aspects of the simulation model incorporate data from actual DISH and CDC response plans.The simulated scenario therefore replicates the actual characteristics Of a real-world attack in which the decommissioning process and response strategy choice can sign ificantly affect outcomes in terms of infection rate, contagion spread, population finis rate, and public mood. Given these factors, these types of decision support system technologies offer a rich and dynamic simulation environment, which largely alleviates the common concerns previously associated with using simplistic homegrown or off-the-shelf simulation tools in academic research (Linebacker et al. 2009 Mustachios & Susann, 2009). Specifically, our training exercise utilizes thousands of different participant decisions on a variety of teams, at multiple levels, which affect thousands of computerized agents who respond dynamically to the collective participant inputs, as well as each Agnes response behavior to the inputs (See Structured, Meta, & ornerier, 2005 Harrison, Line, Carroll, & Carrey, 2007 for more detail on simulation modeling).Additionally, conflicting criteria prevent exercise participants from gaming the system and drive the multiple measures of effectiveness. Thu s these types of decision support system technologies offer the type of rich and powerful research technology littorals with a high degree Of external and internal validity as well as reliability required for integrated decision support (Lie et al. , 2009 Linebacker et al. , 2009 Mustachios & Susann, 2009). Measures Dependent variables. The dependent variable in our study consists of an integrated composite measure for decision effectiveness.This approach is consistent with recent research advocating integrated process and outcome measures for decision-making support system evaluation (Moral et al. , 2005 Phillips-Wren et al. , 2009). While the decision objective is to contain or control the outbreak and defame totalities, the need to maintain acceptable levels of public mood complicates this objective. Therefore the decision makers must consider the outcome of their decisions choices in terms of containing the outbreak and impact on public mood.Examining The Implications Of Proces sTherefore a further contribution of this study is that we also seek to take into account this mediating role of choice on decision effectiveness. In this study we address several specific research questions 1) Does variation in the decision-making process result in variation in response choice 2) Does variation in response choice result in variation in decision effectiveness and 3) Can we also trace he effectiveness of different SAD processes as mediated through particular response choices?Since management can influence the SAD processes, question three is likely to be of more interest than question two. However, if we only look at the direct relationship between SAD processes and effectiveness (I. E. , Dean & Sherman, 1 996), we might be attributing differences in effectiveness to process variation when these variations did not actually influence choices. Thus, we need to adequately discern which SAD processes are more effective in these situations and produce the most effective o utcomes.Addressing these questions helps to clarify the integrated influences of process and choice on strategic decision-making effectiveness. This paper proceeds as follows 1) We review related research on SAD, and leverage prior theory to develop hypotheses for an integrated process-choice-effectiveness SAD model 2) We examine the model and hypotheses through empirical analysis of data from a crisis response training exercise using an agent-based simulation decision support system technology 3) We present and discuss the results Of our analyses in relation to the model and hypotheses Copyright C 2010, GIG Global.Copying or distributing in print or electronic September 201 0 3 and 4) We conclude with a discussion of our findings along with implications for practitioners and forthcoming academic research. Theory development Prior work by Dean and Sherman (1 993, 1 996) offers an integrated decision-making model, for framing this study of SAD process-cooperativenesss. Their work ex amines the assumptions underlying the relationship between decision- making processes, response choices, and SAD effectiveness.The model proposes that variation in decision-making process (political or rational) will produce different espouse choices, which result in variation in SAD effectiveness. However, empirical testing of their model is limited to the relationship between political and rational decision-making processes and variation in effectiveness alone, excluding the intermediate response choice variable.As the potential mediating implications of the response choice intermediate variable are thereby unexamined, we extend and examine Dean and Chairmans (1996) model to clarify the conflicting arguments in the prior SAD literature. We do this through examining the full model with the inclusion of the mediating allegations of response choice through our application to an extreme decision-making context (crisis response).Our approach is as follows 1) We extend Dean and Chairman s (1996) strategic decision-making relationship and effectiveness model of variation in process, response choice, and effectiveness by expanding their effectiveness model to include the potential mediating effects of intermediate choices and 2) We then examine the competing arguments for process effectiveness in this context from Frederickson and Mitchell (1 984), Bourgeois and Eisenhower (1988), and Hart (1992).In Dean and Chairmans (1996) model variation in the strategic decision-making process (e. G. , Political or Rational approaches) produce variation in response choice, resulting in variation in effectiveness. The effectiveness outcomes therefore depend on the following 1 ) The strategic decision-making process utilized, and 2) The response strategy choices implemented.In order to clarify the conflicting dominant arguments in the literature for process effectiveness under uncertainty, as well as test the theorized mediating role of choice, we develop several base-line hypothes es to be ugly consistent with the previous literature. Replicating Dean and Chairmans (1996) model Hypothesis 1 Variation in strategic decommissioning process will be related to variation in effectiveness.Examining the sub elements of the implied Dean and Sherman (1996) model Hypothesis 2 Variation in strategic decommissioning process will be related to variation in response choice. Hypothesis 3 Variation in response choice will be related to variation in effectiveness. To examine the full model as proposed by Dean and Sherman (1 996), which proposes a mediating relationship but only examines the erect relationship, we distinguish between the direct effect of SAD process on effectiveness (HI ) and a mediating relationship acting through response choice.Whereas, Dean and Chairmans (1996) original model has choice as endogenous to the strategic decision-making and effectiveness relationship, we model response choice as an intermediate step and consider this as an expansion of the stra tegy decision-making and effectiveness relationship. We therefore derive hypothesis 4 to examine whether response choice has both a mediating and direct effect Examining the full Dean and Sherman (1996) model Hypothesis 4 Variation in strategic decommissioning process and variation in response choice will be related to variation in effectiveness. Copyright 0 201 0, GIG Global.Copying or distributing in print or electronic 4 International Journal of Decision Support System Technology, 2(3), 1-15, July-September 201 0 To examine the conflict in the literature regarding the inconsistency among the Frederickson and Mitchell (1984) and Bourgeois and Eisenhower (1988) propositions for uncertain and high velocity environments, as well as the Hart (1992) propositions for effectiveness by type of decision-making process, we develop hypotheses AAA and b Hypothesis AAA In highly turbulent environments, Rational decision-making processes should be positively related to effectiveness, while Poli tical decommissioning processes should not have a positive relationship with effectiveness (Bourgeois & Eisenhower, 1 988 Hart, 1992). Hypothesis b In highly turbulent environments, Rational decision-making processes should be negatively related to effectiveness, while Political decommissioning processes should have a positive relationship with effectiveness (Frederickson & Mitchell, 1984). Analytical considerations Study context Crisis events (I. E. , rude(a) disasters, terrorism, etc. Are environments characterized by varying levels of turbulence and ambiguity (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks, 2004). While government organizations differ from those in the private sector, research in the management field on SAD may be applicable to government organizations dealing with crisis events. For example, the core task of organizations is the creation and/or maintenance of a fit between the organizations internal strengths and capabilities and the demands placed on them by their e nvironments. Government organizations must also draw upon unique resources and capabilities across various departments and levels of government to respond to challenges in their environments.Similarly, the levels of turbulence and ambiguity present in a government agency operating environment may also be direct contributors to the difficulties inherent to SAD in these contexts. The nature of the environmental pressure, turbidity, and outcome implications make this a unique and challenging operating environment. Prior related work on this topic from other fields includes the development of homeland defense strategy for the White House (KUDUS, 2004), the modeling of disease outbreaks (Ravager & Longing, 1985 Kurd & Hare, 2001 Kaplan, craft, & win, 2002, 2003 Bank, Gull, Kumar, Marathon, Cravings, Tutorial, & Wang, 2004 Craft, Win, & Wilkins, 2005).Further uses have included numerous academic, government, and practitioner publications on epidemiological, terrorism response, and homelan d security and defense strategies (Deutsche, 1 963 Hoffman, 1981 Hugh & Selves, 2002 Ramirez-Marquee & Afar, 2009). Sample data We test our model and hypotheses using data collected from a multi-step approach consisting of an experiment (a U. S. Department of Homeland Security training exercise called Measured Response (MR.)) in conjunction with an intelligent agent-based simulation. We use this data to examine the extended Dean and Sherman (1996) model and the associated hypotheses for variation in SAD process, choice, and effectiveness. We use a computational experimentation methodological approach to do this.This approach consists of two steps 1) Using a validated survey instrument to collect data on strategy process and choice from a lab experiment with actual practitioners grouped into several response teams and 2) An intelligent agent-based simulation utilized in the exercise to produce data on the effectiveness of the groups SAD processes and response choices. We test Our mod el and its hypotheses through empirical analysis of a sub sample of 268 combined observations from the survey and simulation data collected from the exercise. Copyright C 201 0, GIG Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic September 2010 5 Measured Response Exercise.The MR. Homeland Security training exercise consisted of nine teams of human agents comprised of three to five individuals each (representing their actual functional responsibilities in most asses) to play the roles of the Departments of Homeland Security (DISH), Health and Human Services (DISH), and Transportation (EDT) at the local, state, and federal levels. These human agents operated in a Joint Operations Center environment where they were able to execute a variety of decisions and respond interactively to changes in the simulated environment throughout the exercise. Simulation Model. The Measured Response training exercise utilizes a synthetic environment as the decision support system technology for the exercise. This system uses a dynamic virtual computer simulation environment to simulate the outbreak ND dispersion of a biological agent on a mid-sized city in the United States. This outbreak affects tens of thousands of computer-based intelligent agents.These agents approximate the diversity of behavioral characteristics and demographics of the actual modeled population for the city. Additionally, we utilized pathogen-specific data from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the simulation model to ensure the attack takes place in a realistic manner on the virtual population of intelligent agents. Further, the organizational aspects of the simulation model incorporate data from actual DISH and CDC response plans. The simulated scenario therefore replicates the actual characteristics Of a real-world attack in which the decommissioning process and response strategy choice can significantly affect outcomes in terms of infection rate, contagion spread, population death rate, an d public mood.Given these factors, these types of decision support system technologies offer a rich and dynamic simulation environment, which largely alleviates the common concerns previously associated with using simplistic homegrown or off-the-shelf simulation tools in academic research (Linebacker et al. , 2009 Mustachios & Susann, 2009). Specifically, our training exercise utilizes thousands of different participant decisions on a variety of teams, at multiple levels, which affect thousands of computerized agents who respond dynamically to the collective participant inputs, as well as each agents response behavior to the inputs (See Structured, Meta, & ornerier, 2005 Harrison, Line, Carroll, & Carrey, 2007 for more detail on simulation modeling).